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Doped semiconductor quantum dots: From controlled synthesis and optical engineering to bioimaging and theranostic applications
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DOI：10.1016/j.mtchem.2026.103653.png)
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Abstract
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Doped quantum dots (DQDs) represent a class of semiconductor nanomaterials where deliberate impurity incorporation unlocks functionalities beyond the reach of undoped counterparts. By embedding transition metal, lanthanide, or non-metal ions into the host lattice, researchers can engineer photophysical properties that are decoupled from strict quantum confinement, yielding enhanced photoluminescence quantum yields (PLQYs), extended emission lifetimes, and novel magnetic properties. This review provides a critical analysis of the synthetic strategies from hot-injection to cation exchange that enable precise control over dopant placement and concentration, which are paramount for optimizing performance. We further study the fundamental mechanisms behind dopant-induced emission, energy transfer processes, and the resultant optical and magnetic phenomena. A central focus is placed on biomedical applications, where DQDs demonstrate exceptional potential in multimodal bioimaging and targeted theranostics. However, clinical translation remains hindered by significant challenges related to toxicity, scalability, and long-term environmental stability. This work uniquely provides a comparative framework to evaluate leading dopant systems (including metal-doped, carbon-based, and perovskite QDs) against key translational metrics such as PLQY, cytotoxicity, and clearance rates. Finally, we outline a forward-looking roadmap to address these barriers, highlighting the pivotal role of machine learning-guided design, heavy-metal-free compositions, and integrated theranostic platforms in advancing the next generation of nanomedicine.
Keywords:
doped quantum dots
controlled synthesis
optical engineering
bioimaging
theranostic applications
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