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Thermal management of mixed age lithium-ion battery module using liquid immersion cooling for a rural school microgrid
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DOI：10.1016/j.csite.2026.108270.png)
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Abstract
En 中文
In response to limited access to centralised power grids, isolated regions are increasingly adopting microgrids that integrate standalone renewable energy sources with battery energy storage systems. This study examines a remote microgrid for a rural school, where field current data and experimental aging tests are used to design twelve-cell battery module comprising both aged and new cells. A thermal model is developed using real load current profiles and experimental data from the cells. This model is then used to analyse the fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics of the battery module with direct contact liquid immersion battery cooling (DLBC). DLBC reduced the average module temperature from 48°C in the matched-geometry air-cooling baseline to 26°C. However, the coolant circulation activity within the pack introduces thermal gradients on the cells. Vortex behaviour including vortex tilting, merging and flow reversal is identified as causes of thermal gradients and pressure variations within the module. Four cell arrangements-namely Aligned, Alternate, Cross and Angled are assessed for their impact on temperature uniformity, coolant flow behaviour and pressure loss. A quantitative and qualitative correlation between coolant vortex behavior and non-uniform temperature in the most affected cell rows is demonstrated. A novel index the Operational Effectiveness Index (O.E.I) evaluates cooling uniformity and pumping power. Basic aligned arrangement shows highest temperature difference (3.21°C) while Alternate arrangement exhibits best thermal-hydraulic balance with a low temperature difference (2.61°C) and highest operational effectiveness index (O.E.I) of 0.87. The integrated approach offers practical insights for system reliability in rural microgrid applications.
Keywords:
DC microgrid
Immersion cooling
Battery thermal management system
Second-life batteries
Battery modelling
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