Integrated Environmental Cadmium Exposure, Plaque Calcium Content, and Lifestyle Factors Improve Prediction of Carotid Plaque Echogenicity: An Exposome-Oriented Approach

Adam Płoński

doi:10.3390/toxics14080707

Associations Between Human Exposure to Substituted p-Phenylenediamine-Derived Quinones and Colorectal Cancer Risk

2026-08-11

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OA

AI

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Zhenling Fu

Z

Zefu Hu

H

Hangbiao Jin

S

Sihui Yin *

DOI：10.3390/toxics14080705

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Substituted p-phenylenediamine-derived quinones (PPD-Qs) have become ubiquitous contaminants in various environmental matrices. However, the understanding of the potential health risks posed by human exposure to these emerging compounds remains limited. In this case–control study, we investigated the association between urinary concentrations of six PPD-Q congeners and colorectal cancer (CRC) risk. Detection frequencies of all target PPD-Qs in human urine ranged from 73.7% to 88.2% in the control group and from 70.2% to 89.6% in the case group. 6PPD-Q (2-((4-methylpentan-2-yl)amino)-5-(phenylamino)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; mean 1.37 μg/g creatinine), 77PD-Q (2,5-bis((5-methylhexan-2-yl)amino)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; 0.68 μg/g creatinine), and IPPD-Q (2-(isopropylamino)-5-(phenylamino)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; 0.70 μg/g creatinine) were the predominant PPD-Qs in urine from healthy controls. In CRC cases, 6PPD-Q had the highest mean urinary level (mean 1.75 μg/g creatinine), followed by DPPD-Q (2,5-bis(phenylamino)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; 0.83 μg/g creatinine) and IPPD-Q (0.73 μg/g creatinine). After multivariable adjustment, higher urinary levels of 6PPD-Q (OR for Q4 vs. Q1 = 1.79, 95% CI: 1.26–2.32), CPPD-Q (2-(cyclohexylamino)-5-(phenylamino)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; OR = 1.60, 95% CI: 1.26–1.94), and DPPD-Q (OR = 1.47, 95% CI: 1.25–1.68) were significantly associated with increased CRC odds, with nonlinear exposure–response patterns observed. Mixture analysis suggested a positive joint association between urinary PPD-Q concentrations and the odds of CRC, with 6PPD-Q and DPPD-Q contributing most strongly to the estimated statistical association. These findings highlight the need for further prospective studies and potential regulatory considerations to mitigate public health impacts from these contaminants.

Keywords:

PPD-Qs

6PPD-Q

urinary level

colorectal cancer risk

mixed exposure

Associations Between Human Exposure to Substituted p-Phenylenediamine-Derived Quinones and Colorectal Cancer Risk

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