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Blockchain for Large Language Models (LLMs): Applications, challenges, and framework implementation
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DOI：10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131100.png)
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Abstract
En 中文
Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly embedded in intelligent systems across domains such as healthcare, finance, and smart infrastructure. However, their reliance on centralized data pipelines raises unresolved challenges concerning provenance, accountability, and verifiable trust. As the demand for transparent and regulation-aligned AI grows, these challenges have become central to the responsible deployment of intelligent systems. This review examines how blockchain technology can address them by introducing decentralized integrity, immutable audit trails, and cryptographic verification into the LLM lifecycle. Through a structured synthesis of current research, we identify conceptual and architectural gaps that limit trustworthy data management, inference authentication, and explainability. To bridge these gaps, a methodological framework is proposed that integrates blockchain mechanisms across the LLM pipeline using smart contracts, Merkle-based commitments, and decentralized storage. The framework’s feasibility is demonstrated through an illustrative prototype, confirming its practical applicability for building verifiable and transparent AI infrastructures. We further outline application domains such as healthcare, smart cities, Industry 4.0, and supply-chain management, where blockchain-anchored LLMs can enhance auditability and regulatory compliance. The review concludes by highlighting key insights and challenges for future research, emphasizing the need for decentralized attestation models, scalable verification protocols, and governance mechanisms that advance accountable and privacy-preserving intelligent systems.
Keywords:
Blockchain
Large language models
Explainable AI
Trustworthy AI
Intelligent systems
Data governance
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