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Breath-Hold Time and Anxiety-Related Vulnerability: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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DOI：10.1016/j.biopsycho.2026.109316.png)
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Abstract
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• Anxiety disorders are characterized by reduced voluntary breath-hold time, indicating diminished respiratory interoceptive tolerance. • Breath-hold time shows stronger associations with state anxiety and acute distress than with trait anxiety measures. • Respiratory protocol parameters (inhalation vs. exhalation onset) systematically modulate breath-hold performance across studies. • Sex composition predicts breath-hold time in healthy adults but not in anxiety samples, suggesting altered interoceptive processing in clinical populations. • Voluntary breath-hold time provides a simple performance-based marker of respiratory interoception relevant to anxiety vulnerability.
Keywords:
Breath-Holding
Interoceptive Tolerance
Distress Tolerance
Anxiety Disorders
Panic Disorder
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