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Effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation on spatial memory: a systematic review across animal and human studies
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DOI：10.3389/fnbeh.2026.1901070.png)
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Abstract
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IntroductionSpatial memory relies on distributed hippocampal–cortical networks that are highly sensitive to modulation of excitability; connectivity; and synaptic plasticity. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has emerged as a promising tool to experimentally probe and therapeutically modulate these networks; although its effects on spatial memory remain heterogeneous.MethodsWe conducted a PRISMA-guided systematic review synthesizing evidence from rodent and human studies examining the effects of TMS on spatial memory. A total of 35 studies (23 animal; 12 human) identified through searches of Scopus; Web of Science; and PubMed were included; encompassing a broad range of stimulation protocols; behavioral paradigms; and neurophysiological outcomes.ResultsIn animal models; TMS consistently improved spatial learning and memory under pathological conditions; including neurodegenerative; vascular; stress-related; and injury models. These effects were associated with convergent mechanisms; including restoration of hippocampal long- term potentiation; modulation of neurotrophic signaling; reduced apoptosis and neuroinflammation; enhanced synaptic plasticity; and recovery of hippocampal network function. In contrast; findings in healthy animals were mixed and strongly dependent on stimulation parameters. Human findings were similarly variable. Improvements were observed in some clinical populations; whereas results in healthy individuals were inconsistent and task dependent. Neurophysiological evidence indicated modulation of oscillatory activity and hippocampal–cortical connectivity; although these changes did not always translate into measurable behavioral effects.DiscussionOverall; TMS effects on spatial memory appear to be strongly state-dependent; reflecting interactions between stimulation parameters and underlying circuit integrity. Further research should prioritize multimodal approaches integrating behavioral and neurophysiological measures; particularly in clinical populations; to improve mechanistic understanding and translational applicability.Systematic review registrationhttps://osf.io/; identifier 10.17605/OSF.IO/32VWN.
Keywords:
memory
hippocampus
neuromodulation
synaptic plasticity
transcranial magnetic stimulation
brain stimulation
spatial learning
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