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Energy consumption, economic costs, and carbon footprint of the hierarchical black defective TiO2 nanomaterials: From production to application in environmental remediation
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DOI：10.1016/j.cattod.2026.115871.png)
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Abstract
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• Nanoflowers production requires more EE/kg than other morphology of BD-TiO2 • EE costs/kg are 4.5-fold higher in the UK ($9.414) compared to China ($1.997) • CEs are lower in developed countries than developing ones due renewable energy mix • BNFs demand 3.99 kWh/m3 of EE for treating low concentration wastewater (<100 mg/L) • Treating wastewater in the UK costs $4.725/m3 and $1.002/m3 in China • EE, CEs, and t-cost varies considerably with country of production and application
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