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Engine performance and emission characteristics of biodiesel produced from azadirachta indica oil through deep eutectic solvent-catalyzed transesterification
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DOI：10.1007/s13399-026-07238-z.png)
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Abstract
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In this work, biodiesel was produced from high-free fatty acid Azadirachta indica (neem) oil using deep eutectic solvents as catalysts. Six DESs were synthesized and screened, having quaternary ammonium and phosphonium salts as hydrogen bond acceptors. The results show that the phosphonium-based toluene sulfonic acid-derived DES is the most active Brønsted-acid catalyst for FFA esterification. The process is systematically optimized by varying the oil: methanol molar ratio, esterification temperature, and catalyst loading. The optimum parameters obtained are 100 °C, a 1:5 oil-to-methanol ratio, and 3 wt%. In comparison to non-catalytic base processes that require temperatures of 180–220 °C, the DES pathway reduces thermal severity while significantly enhancing conversion efficiency. While the catalytic efficacy of phosphonium-based deep eutectic solvents has been demonstrated for feedstocks such as crude palm oil, a scarcity of comprehensive data was identified regarding the engine performance, combustion behavior, and emission profiles of biodiesel synthesized via this DES route. The present work was therefore designed to extend the investigation beyond synthesis to a full evaluation of the fuel's combustion, performance, and emission characteristics in a compression ignition engine. The engine performance and emissions assessment of the conventional diesel and biodiesel are evaluated at 1500 rpm at varying loads of 20–100%. The results showed that biodiesel exhibited higher brake-specific fuel consumption and slightly lower brake thermal efficiency due to lower heating value and distinct spray-evaporation behaviour. The emission results show that CO, CO2, and hydrocarbons decrease notably in the exhaust gases, at the cost of increased NOx emissions.
Keywords:
Biodiesel
Catalyst
Diesel engine
Deep eutectic solvent
Emission
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