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From dispersal to semi-connected metapopulation: directional seascape connectivity of coastal Nypa fruticans Wurmb. along the Thailand–Malay Peninsula
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DOI：10.1186/s12870-026-09738-6.png)
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Abstract
En 中文
Nypa fruticans disperses through buoyant fruits that may remain near the parent plants or be transported long distances by ocean currents. As a result, population structure may be complex, consisting of both local individuals and migrants derived from populations located thousands of miles away. In addition, coastal environments may affect the propagule dispersal and establishment due to various factors, such as ocean currents, temperature and the coastal landscape. Therefore, this plant serves as a suitable model to test the two major mechanisms shaping population genetics: isolation by distance (IBD) or isolation by environment (IBE). In this study, we examined the populations of N. fruticans across the Thailand–Malay Peninsula corridor to elucidate the mechanisms shaping the genetic structures of the populations. Leaf samples from 169 individuals across ten estuarine populations were genotyped using microsatellite markers to elucidate genetic structure, connectivity, and clustering of the species. Genetic differentiation was moderate (FST = 0.149), and three partially overlapping genetic groups were identified, indicating regional structure with evidence of admixture among some estuarine populations. Additionally, relative migration analyses suggested intermediate but asymmetric connectivity, with the Marang population and Samut Prakan emerging as possible hub-like populations under the analytical framework used here. However, these directional patterns should be interpreted cautiously because the dataset showed substantial heterozygote deficits and limited within-population polymorphism. After accounting for geographic distance, thermal differences showed a consistent positive association with genetic differentiation, supporting an environmental contribution to the population structure. Together, these results suggest that N. fruticans along the Thailand–Malay Peninsula corridor forms a semi-connected coastal metapopulation in which dispersal processes and thermal environmental gradients jointly contribute to genetic structure. Rather than demonstrating IBE as the dominant driver, our findings indicate that environmental heterogeneity may modulate an underlying isolation-by-distance pattern.
Keywords:
Nypa fruticans
Microsatellites (SSR)
Gene flow
Isolation by environment
Seascape genetics
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