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From symbolic inclusion to procedural democratization: public participation and civil society in the Kurdistan region
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DOI：10.1080/13510347.2026.2655198.png)
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Abstract
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This study examines the evolution of public participation in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq between 2016 and 2019, focusing on participatory reforms introduced under the Enhancing Democratization Program (EDP). Drawing on mixed methods – surveys, interviews, focus groups, and institutional documents – it analyses changes in access, trust, and perceived influence. The findings show that the EDP expanded visible participatory spaces and strengthened trust in civil society organizations and provincial councils, but had limited effects on confidence in government and parliament. Elite dominance, weak responsiveness, and selective inclusion constrained participants’ influence, leaving most forums consultative rather than transformative. Anchored in Arnstein's distinction between symbolic and substantive participation, the article argues that procedural inclusion can widen participation without redistributing power. The Kurdistan case thus highlights a broader challenge of democratization in hybrid regimes: participation may expand in form while remaining limited in function.
Keywords:
Public participation
civil society
Kurdistan region
hybrid regimes
participatory governance
democratization
institutional trust
political inclusion
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