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From the Selfish Gene to the “We”: Cooperation Often Needs Suppressors
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DOI：10.1002/bies.70161.png)
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Abstract
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Human cooperation is often explained through motivations and values, but it is also a strategic and evolutionary problem: locally advantageous behavior can erode the collective arrangements on which everyone depends. Dawkins’ gene-centered view remains useful here, not as a moral theory of selfish people, but as a way to track how lower-level selection can destabilize higher-level organization. I argue, however, that cooperation is stabilized by a broader repertoire than external punishment alone. Repeated interaction, partner choice, aligned incentives, and architectural constraints can all make cheating unattractive; in many settings, additional suppressors then make defection costly or unprofitable. On this view, game theory and a multilevel evolutionary lens are complementary. The Folk Theorem shows how cooperative outcomes can be sustained endogenously under patience and monitoring, while biology shows how the informational and structural conditions for such equilibria are themselves produced or maintained. The point is diagnostic rather than fatalistic: cooperation is typically conditional, costly to sustain, and shaped by trade-offs, but humans can redesign incentives and institutions, especially in digital environments where misinformation and attention now propagate with unusual speed and fidelity.
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