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Functionally Graded Materials: Development, Processing Techniques, and Emerging Applications-A Comprehensive Review
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DOI：10.1016/j.mtcomm.2026.115000.png)
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Abstract
En 中文
Functionally graded materials are engineered materials that produce continuous variations in mechanical, thermal, and functional properties by controlling structure and composition gradients. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of FGM fabrication, structure-property relationships, application areas, and recent research developments. Major FGM systems such as metal-ceramic, metal-metal, ceramic-ceramic, polymer-based, and nano-composite are compared against various processing methods, such as powder metallurgy, spark plasma sintering, hot-pressing, centrifugal casting, and additive manufacturing (AM). The study highlights that AM technologies and SPS are highly capable of precise gradient control, complex geometry fabrication, and rapid prototyping. New approaches to property prediction and gradient optimization are presented using computational modelling, machine learning, and multi-scale simulation methods. The application-focused part of the research highlights the utility of FGM in aerospace thermal-barrier coatings, bio-implants, energy devices, automotive components, and smart coatings. The study concludes that FGM technology offers significant improvements in multi-purpose performance (e.g., residual stress control, thermal stability, interface strength), but challenges remain in large-scale production, process control, and standardization. Incorporating AI-assisted design, in-situ monitoring, and life-cycle-based assessment could further accelerate FGM's industrial adoption in the future.
Keywords:
3D
Three-Dimensional
4D
Four-Dimensional
A319
Aluminium alloy reference
AAM
Arc-based Additive Manufacturing
AI
Artificial Intelligence
Al₂O₃
Alumina
AM
Additive Manufacturing
ANN
Artificial Neural Network
AOA
Arithmetic Optimization Algorithm
APS
Atmospheric Plasma Spray
C/C
Carbon–Carbon
CALPHAD
CALculation of PHAse Diagrams
CIP
Cold Isostatic Pressing
CISM
Centrifugal In-Situ Method
CMPM
Centrifugal Mixed Powder Method
CMT
Cold Metal Transfer
CS
Cold Spray
CSCM
Centrifugal Sintered-Casting Method
DED
Directed Energy Deposition
DMLS
Direct Metal Laser Sintering
DSC
Differential Scanning Calorimetry
EAM
Embedded Atom Method
EBD
Electron Beam Deposition
EBSD
Electron Backscatter Diffraction
EDS
Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy
EPD
Electrophoretic Deposition
FEM
Finite Element Method
FG
Functionally Graded
FGM
Functionally Graded Material(s)
FIB
Focused Ion Beam
FFT
Fast Fourier Transform
FSW
Friction Stir Welding
FTIR
Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
GA
Genetic Algorithm
GDOES
Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectroscopy
GPa
Gigapascal
HEA
High-Entropy Alloy
HEMT
High Electron Mobility Transistor
Hf
Hafnium
HfO₂
Hafnia
HVOF
High-Velocity Oxy-Fuel
HIP
Hot Isostatic Pressing
HRTEM
High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy
IBED
Ion-Beam Enhanced Deposition
ICP
Inductively Coupled Plasma
LENS
Laser Engineered Net Shaping
LB
Langmuir–Blodgett
MAM
Metal Additive Manufacturing
ML
Machine Learning
MOCVD
Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition
Ni–Ti / NiTi
Nickel–Titanium
NiCr
Nickel–Chromium
PBF
Powder Bed Fusion
PCL
Polycaprolactone
PECVD
Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition
PVD
Physical Vapor Deposition
PZT
Lead Zirconate Titanate
RMS
Root Mean Square
SBF
Simulated Body Fluid
SDS
Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate
SEM
Scanning Electron Microscopy
SiC, Sialon
Silicon CarbideSi–Al–O–N
SiO₂
Silica
SLA
Stereolithography
SLS
Selective Laser Sintering
SMA
Shape Memory Alloy
SPS
Spark Plasma Sintering
SRIM
Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter
STEM
Scanning/Transmission Electron Microscopy
TDTR
Time-Domain Thermo-Reflectance
TEM
Transmission Electron Microscopy
Ti-HAP
Titanium-Substituted Hydroxyapatite
TIG
Tungsten Inert Gas
UNISA
University of South Africa
VNIT
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology
WAAM
Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing
XRD
X-ray Diffraction
YSZ
Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia
Functionally graded materials (FGMs)
Gradient structure
Spark plasma sintering (SPS)
Additive manufacturing (AM)
Bio-implants
Structure–property relationships
Multi-Scale Modelling
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