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Improving Reliability and Range of Underwater QKD With Optical Intelligent Reflecting Surfaces
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DOI：10.1109/JSAC.2026.3706657.png)
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Abstract
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Underwater quantum key distribution (QKD) is emerging as a critical enabler for secure communication in submerged environments. However, conventional underwater QKD systems are fundamentally constrained by the requirement of line-of-sight (LoS) optical paths, which are often obstructed by terrain, particulates, or mobility. To address this challenge, we propose a novel architecture based on an optical intelligent reflecting surface (OIRS), which enables non LOS (NLoS) underwater quantum communication through dynamic beam redirection. We develop a comprehensive composite channel model that jointly incorporates wavelength-dependent attenuation, geometric misalignment loss (GML), and turbulence-induced fading. Closed-form expressions for the end-to-end transmittance distribution are derived using Meijer-G and Fox-H functions. Leveraging this framework, we obtain analytical expressions and simulation-validated bounds for the average quantum bit error rate (QBER) and secret key rate (SKR) under both discrete-variable (DV) and continuous-variable (CV) QKD protocols. Extensive Monte Carlo (MC) simulations confirm the accuracy of the theoretical models and reveal the critical impact of water turbidity, misalignment, and thermal noise. The results demonstrate that the OIRS-assisted architecture significantly extends the operational range of underwater QKD, paving the way for practical and secure quantum communication in complex aquatic environments.
Keywords:
Underwater quantum key distribution (QKD)
optical intelligent reflecting surface (OIRS)
non-line-of-sight (NLoS) communication
underwater optical communication
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