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Red stains and associated microbial community of the external white marble of Florence cathedral
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DOI：10.1016/j.culher.2026.03.002.png)
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Abstract
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Red stains are a common and persistent form of deterioration affecting historic marble monuments and are notoriously difficult to remove. The red colouration has been attributed to the presence of the inorganic pigment minium (Pb3 O4 ) in many works. Previous studies have reported the presence of leadresistant microorganisms within these stains. However, the potential microbial contribution to minium formation on marble surfaces remains unclear, and the origin of the discolourations, whether biological or inorganic, is still debated. In this study, we investigated the red discolourations on the external white marble of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence (Italy), to characterise their nature and the associated microbial community through a multidisciplinary approach. We combined chemical analyses (X-Ray Fluorescence and Raman Spectroscopy) with both culture-dependent and -independent methods. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the presence of minium in the red-stained areas. Targeted metagenomic analysis provided a first insight into the structure and diversity of the microbial community inhabiting the red-stained marble. Moreover, lead-resistant bacteria and yeasts were successfully isolated and identified, providing a basis for investigating their possible role in the origin of these stains. (c) 2026 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Keywords:
Marble deterioration
Lead-resistant microorganisms
Targeted metagenomics
Microbial communities
Minium
Cultural heritage conservation
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