Space–time interference in action

doi:10.1186/s41235-026-00745-7

Space–time interference in action

2026-07-21

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DOI：10.1186/s41235-026-00745-7

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Space–time interference has been frequently reported in perceptual paradigms, but it is unclear to what extent these effects generalize to action-related tasks. We therefore investigated whether space–time interference extends to the execution of goal-directed reaching movements towards 3D objects presented in immersive virtual reality. Forty participants performed both perceptual and motor judgments with respect to the spatial and temporal occurrence of sequentially from left to right presented 3D spheres, with spatial and temporal interstimulus intervals systematically varied. Consistent with previous findings in 2D paradigms, we observed bidirectional interference in a goal-directed pointing task: larger spatial intervals delayed temporal predictions (positive space-on-time effect), whereas longer temporal intervals shifted spatial predictions leftward (negative time-on-space effect). Perceptual judgments showed a significant positive time-on-space effect, but no space-on-time effect. Interference effects in perceptual and pointing tasks were not correlated. Our findings demonstrate that space–time interference extends to more complex motor behavior, highlighting its relevance for everyday actions such as reaching, catching, and navigating. Integrating spatial and temporal information is vital for everyday actions such as catching a ball or crossing a street, and cross-dimensional interference between space and time might influence these actions. Despite frequent real-world examples, most research on space-time interference has been limited to perceptual tasks, even though it is known that perception and action rely on partly distinct neuronal mechanisms. Consequently, it remains unclear whether space-time interference also affects motor behavior. The present study overcomes these limitations by using immersive virtual reality to examine space-time interference during ballistic reaching movements. This approach provides a more naturalistic test of how spatial and temporal information interact during real-world action. As perceptual space-time interference has been observed across the lifespan and may increase with age, our findings establish an important basis for exploring how space-time interference influences motor performance in everyday life.

Keywords:

Space–time interference

Perception versus action

Motor behavior

Virtual reality

Space–time interference in action

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