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Spatio-temporal analysis of land surface temperature, urban heat island intensity, and urban thermal field variance index in Faisalabad, Pakistan
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DOI：10.1007/s11869-026-02047-9.png)
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Abstract
En 中文
Rapid industrial growth and development created serious environmental issues due to urbanization and global warming. It has resulted a rise in ground temperature, thus intensifying the Urban Heat Island effect and generating ecological damage. This study analyzed Land Surface Temperature (LST), Urban Heat Island (UHI) intensity, and Urban Thermal Field Variance Index (UTFVI) using remote sensing data during 2013, 2018, and 2023 in district Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan. Results showed that mean LST values increased from 21.99 °C to 28.64 °C during 2013–2023 due to urban expansion, industrial expansion, and climate change effects. The total area of vegetation decreased from 5075 km² to 4988 km² between 2013 and 2023. However, built-up areas increased by 90 km², resulting in more heat stress conditions. During this period, the UHI zones experienced substantial growth because high zones expanded from 11.11% to 17.68%, while very high zones developed from 3.74% to 12.35%. UTFVI analysis revealed that increased extreme heat areas have worsened ecological stability and mild temperatures in the study area. This study demonstrates the immediate requirement for urban development planning that integrates water management green infrastructure and sustainable practices to protect Faisalabad from heat rise while building its resilience.
Keywords:
Climate change
Human comfort zone
Spatio-temporal analysis
Urban heat island
Urban thermal field variance index
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