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STATISTICAL PROBLEMS IN ESP RESEARCH
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DOI：10.1126/science.663642.png)
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In search of repeatable ESP [extra sensory perception] experiments, modern investigators are using more complex targets, richer and freer responses, feedback and more naturalistic conditions which make tractable statistical models less applicable and controls often are so loose that no valid statistical analysis is possible. Some common problems are multiple end points, subject cheating and unconscious sensory cueing. Such problems are hard to recognize from published records of the experiments in which they occur; rather, these problems are often uncovered by reports of independent skilled observers who were present during the experiment, suggesting that magicians and psychologists be regularly used as observers. New statistical ideas were developed for some of the new experiments, e.g., many modern ESP studies provide subjects with feedback (partial information about previous guesses) to reward the subjects for correct guesses in hope of inducing ESP learning. Some feedback experiments can be analyzed with the use of skill-scoring, a statistical procedure that depends on the information available and the way the guessing subject uses this information.
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