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Sustainable thymol-based formulations with amoxicillin and Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil
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DOI：10.3389/fchem.2026.1898133.png)
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Abstract
En 中文
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) against antibiotics is caused by the evolution of pathogens to endure antibiotics; rendering once powerful treatments now useless. Amoxicillin (A); a well-known antibiotic is subjected to AMR and could be more effective in combination with plant-based extracts. Tea Tree essential oil (T) and thymol (t) are known antimicrobial agents but are hampered by their lipophilicity; volatility; oxidative degradation and skin irritation. These disadvantages can be mitigated by combinations to achieve better drug delivery outcomes. Thymol; a monoterpenoid has remarkable antimicrobial activities; but several pathogens are resistant to it. T is utilized since centuries against ailments but requires nanoencapsulation due to drug-delivery problems. Formulations consisting of T; thymol; and amoxicillin (A) were investigated as possible alternatives against AMR. The best combination with highest antimicrobial properties was identified as Tt2A2; consisting of T; thymol; and A at 1:2:2 proportions; respectively. Small-sized particles of Tt2A2 were subjected to ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrometry; Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy; x-ray diffraction (XRD); scanning electron microscopy (SEM); and energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) spectroscopy analysis. Tt2A2 was tested against ten microbial reference strains on discs; surgical sutures; cotton gauze bandages; surgical face masks; and KN95 masks by agar-disc diffusion methods. The formulations of Tt2A2 were effective against all ten reference pathogens achieving zones of inhibition (ZOI) of up to 30–35 mm. Antimicrobial activity of Tt2A2 is proportional to T concentrations and can be fine-tuned according to target pathogen and biomaterial. The Gram-positive S. pneumoniae ATCC 49619 showed high susceptibility with 33.7 mm mean ZOI and a better performance in Tt2A2a. The notorious Gram-negative pathogen P. mirabilis ATCC 29906 was inhibited with 30 mm and in average performed better in Tt2A2b with higher T concentration. The formulations exhibited potential as an antimicrobial agent on surgical sutures; masks and bandages; as well as a disinfective agent. Stability studies revealed the same inhibition zones for up to 3–6 months for all 10 reference strains. However; a steady decline to intermediate inhibitory levels by Gram-positive reference strains was observed towards 18 months of storage.
Keywords:
sustainability
antimicrobial resistance
green synthesis
amoxicillin
thymol
good health and wellbeing
tea tree essential oil
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